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The answer is Problem 12.4

Well, the sum of all positive numbers is equal to negative one twelfth afterall. Or at least I found the part in the textbook that explains it. The downside is that it’s not explained so much as there’s a problem telling the reader to figure it out for themselves. Problem 12.4. It was assigned as a homework problem a few weeks ago and everything, so in theory I should understand it.

It has something to do with the zeta function, defined as:

Zeta function

The argument s can be complex, but there is a finite answer for any s where the real part is greater than one. But what we want to know is what happens if s equals negative one.

Apparently you do some fancy calculus trickery (analytic continuation), which I won’t try to explain because frankly it’s mostly lost on me, to get an equation for gamma (s) times zeta (s) which is valid down to real part of s greater than negative two. Then you can find not only

the sum of all numbers from one to infinity is negative one twelfth

but also

sum of one infinite number of times is negative one half.

For the record, that has nothing to do with string theory. It’s just mathematics. Crazy complex variable calculus, to be sure, but still just mathematics.

In english, not only is the sum of all positive numbers (1+2+3+…) equal to negative one twelfth, but if you add one to itself an infinite number of times (1+1+1+1…) you get negative one half.

Bet you didn’t see that coming.

Negative one twelfth

String theory definitely spits out some strange and unbelievable things. Ten spacetime dimensions. Particles with negative mass. That sort of stuff. But usually there’s some justification for it. There will be a nice little section in the textbook outlining where the result comes from and what we can do to explain it.

However, about halfway through chapter 14 of Barton Zwiebach’s A First Course in String Theory, without any notice or fanfare, the author slips this little gem in on us (equation 14.84):

Equation 14.84

After some more algebra and problem solving the same thing shows up again, in more formal mathematical notation (equation 14.88):

Equation 14.84

Let’s just isolate the juicy bit here:

What the hell is this shit

In plain english, the sum of all whole numbers from 1 to infinity equals negative one twelfth. I’ve tried telling some friends this and they all just stare blankly for a second and then say that that’s wrong. No question. It’s just wrong. I say I’m inclined to agree with them, but if it’s in a textbook it has to be right! You don’t just accidentally type “-1/12″ when you meant to type “infinity”.

What makes it worse is that I haven’t been able to find any reference to where this result comes from. There’s no explanation in the textbook, and the prof in class treated it similarly (”…and so that’s equal to the sum from one to infinity, but that’s just negative one over twelve…”), as if it were a regular everyday mathematical fact.

Would anybody please care to explain?

Plot outline of a Physics class

Monday morning, 10:25. Intro to Deductive Logic. Professor Carson has told us what to expect on the exam, where to pick up our assignments, and tied up all the loose ends in the course material. As if finishing a thirteen week stage show, the auditorium full of students give her a round of applause which she modestly acknowledges.

Tuesday morning, 9:50. String Theory. Professor Cline has finished his own thirteen week performance by introducing the “brane action”. The last line in my notes reads “Branes cannot go faster than light”, next to an equation that says the same thing in mathematical terms (dx^a/dt squared less than one, for those interested). The last assignments are laid out to be picked up and class is over, but there is no applause for the end of a physics class.

Tuesday afternoon, 13:05. Electromagnetic Waves. Professor Lovejoy finished teaching 45 minutes prior, and the floor has been passed on to a group of students to make a presentation. Time is short, so we rush through each of the questions. Roughly two minutes is given to the topic of a particle starting to move before you start to move it. We didn’t even get a chance to start talking about how a particle in a gravitational field radiates energy even though you don’t give it any to radiate. It doesn’t matter—the few people that stayed until the end of class aren’t paying attention anyway. Being pushed out by the next class I don’t know if anybody heard the last things the Professor was saying, but I’m sure if it was important we’ll hear it in the next electromagnetism class.

That’s the way it goes in the physics department. No class is ever really finished, since there’s always another one to continue on. Themodynamics was followed by Statistical Mechanics, which is followed again by Advanced Stat Mech, and probably further still by graduate school classes. Within one semester there is no sense of wonder. There may be a few plot twists along the way as we find that one of Newton’s Laws is violated, or that a particle might have a negative mass, but there is no climax. No denouement.

Now, Professor Bisson, he knew how to take his class—the topic was human evolution—and make a story out of it. His last lecture came back full circle to touch on the things he had told us on the first day and wrapped everything up nicely. It’s more important in an Arts class, I suppose, where each class tends to be more of a little unit on its own, with things in common to other classes but always with a difference scope and perspective. On the last page of my notes I have written “We are unique, in that we are the only large mammal to cover such a huge range and remain a single species.” No equation needed. That was a lecture that deserved applause.

My String Theory textbook, by Barton Zwiebach, started very well with an introduction to the topic, including its motivations, its current status, and the possibility of experimental tests. There were no equations to look at, only a qualitative summary of what our goals in the book were and why we were bothering at all. However, 543 pages later, at the end of the last chapter, we find this less than satisfying conclusion:

Once this is proven, one can finally show that G’ coincides with G. This means that S and T generate the full modular group (see Problem 23.6). It also follows that Fo is a fundamental domain for the modular group.

Nice to know, I suppose, for the context of that chapter. But is there no final word? No wrapping up of our wonderful adventure together? Didn’t our three painful months together mean anything to you, Barton!? You think you can just brush it off, teasing me by telling me what Fo can be, without any thought or care of what our separation means. No, Barton, it’s too late. Go back to your modular groups. I just wanted to say goodbye, that’s all.

For the record (RE: Big Bang and, indirectly, God)

For the record, I would like to state the following:

The Big Bang Theory
does NOT say
that the universe was created from nothing

And if I hear one more apologist saying so, I think I might scream. It’s a bit like saying that since I don’t have any photos of myself before I was, say, 20 minutes old, that I must have appeared spontaneously from thin air as my dad released the shutter.

What the Big Bang does say is that several billion years ago universe was an infinitely dense gas. As my astrophysics professor said, it was “infinitely dense and infinitely large“. Imagining a tiny point exploding outwards has nothing to do with science at all, its just a misleading cartoon people use to imagine what the astrophysicists and cosmologists are talking about.

Science says nothing at all about how the universe we know came into being, if, in fact, it ever did. There are many possibilities — we may be one of infinitely many universes (from quantum physics), our universe may be a part of a larger dimensional Universe (from string theory), or maybe our universe has been oscillating from big bang to big crunch and back out again so we are just one in a long succession of universes.

Just don’t say it was created from nothing with the Big Bang as your guide.

I think I’m in love

Now I may only be one chapter into it so far, but I’m already falling in love with David Bohm and F. David Peat.

DAVID PEAT: As far back as I can remember, I was always interested in the universe. I can still remember standing under a street lamp one evening—I must have been eight or nine—and looking up into the sky and wondering if the light went on forever and ever, and what it meant for something to go on forever and ever, and if the universe ever came to an end. You know the sorts of questions. Well, pretty soon the idea began to excite me that the human mind was able to ask these sorts of questions and in some way comprehend the vastness of everything.

These sorts of ideas continued right through school, along with a feeling of the interconnectedness of everything. It was almost as if the entire universe were a living entity. But of course, when I got down to the serious business of studying science at university, all this changed. I felt that the deepest questions, particularly about the quantum theory, were never properly answered. It seemed pretty clear that most scientists were not really interested in these sorts of questions. They felt that they were not really related to their day-to-day research. Instead we were all encouraged to focus on getting concrete results that could be used in published papers and to work on problems that were “scientifically accpetable.” So faily early on, I found myself getting into hot water because I was always more excited by questions that I didn’t know how to answer than by more routine research. And of course, that’s not the way to build up an impressive list of scientific publications.

And later,

DAVID BOHM: I learned later that many of my fundamental interests were what other people called philosophical and that scientists tended to look down on philosophy as not being very serious This created a problem for me, as I was never able to see any inherent separation between science and philosophy …

I did not feel that it was worth going on with, not without a deeper philosophical ground and the spirit of common inquiry. You see, it is these very things that provide the interest and motivation for using mathematical techniques to study the nature of reality.

As I was reading those passages it slowly dawned on me that I kind of wanted to make out with them. Now you know the way to my heart.

CUPC in review, or, What I like about physics

I really enjoyed my trip to the Canadian Undergraduate Physics Conference in Fredericton last weekend, and I think I know exactly why.

The format was mostly a series of 15 minute talks by undergrad students on research they’ve been doing. Topics were widely varried, from the future of consciousness to gravitational lensing to quantum computer to optimizing electronic circuits. While there was always a choice of talks to go to, I mostly stuck to the interesting stuff, i.e. astrophysics. But that’s just me.

One of the things I liked the most was actually talking about physics with people who could get excited about physics. Usually it’s just me talking about physics to people who couldn’t care less about physics. You biology friends of mine are bringing me down!

So I find I really enjoy talking about physics, but not so much churning through the equations. It’s always the math that brings me down in my classes. I enjoy the lab projects I’ve done since, even though they have a lot of theory behind them, there’s always more to it than just writing out equations. There’s acutally something physical we’re looking at.

After forty minutes of working out some equations, I always love to hear the prof say, “That’s the math, but what’s the physics?” Although a theory without a mathematical description is weak at best, a theory without a description of what’s actually happening means nothing. A mathematical description doesn’t really describe anything.

So at CUPC, where there was lots of talk about physics, I had a great time. The talks that focused on what the actual problem was and a summary of results rather than the nitty gritty of grinding out a solution were the best. I wonder if I can find a grad program that doesn’t require solving equations.

Homecoming and the cool thing I learned

I’m now back in Montreal after a weekend in Fredericton, New Brunswick. Eventually I’ll write about the trip a bit, I think. For now I just needed a few minutes off from my String Theory midterm cram session. (Only 22 hours to go.)

In the meantime, here’s the one tidbit that came up not even in one of the talks at the physics conference, but over lunch at a little greek place off King Street — There are naturally occuring nuclear reactors. And I’m not talking about the Sun, although that technically is also a natural nuclear reactor.

Apparently the little bacteria who are responsible for concentrating uranium in the ground were being so productive in west Africa a little over a million years ago that they increased the concentration of uranium-235 in the soil to such levels that, combined with the water in the surrounding soil needed to slow down the radiated neutrons, a sustained nuclear reaction was possible.

They estimate it ran at about a kilowatt or so, and when it got too hot the water would just vapourize, causing the reaction to stop until the bacteria went back to their bacterial ways and enriched the soil again so it could start all over. Not only was the reaction self-regulating, but all the nuclear waste was self-contained, not moving more than 10 metres since it was created.

Read about the Oklo natural nuclear reactors here, and try google for more sources as well.

Dawkins v. CUPC

I think I might actually take a proactive approach to my “career”. The Canadian Undergratuate Physics Conference this year is being held in, of all places, Fredericton. Not only that, but from the research I did over the summer for NSERC I even have something I could present.

It only comes down to:

  1. actually submitting an abstract to the powers-that-be
  2. figuring out what the proper format for a poster is
  3. figuring out what is entailed in actually presenting such a thing
  4. deciding if I can go away for five days leading up to my String Theory midterm and my philosophy midterm
  5. actually getting accepted to present in the first place
  6. and partying it up in the F’ton.

Total cake walk. (*rolls eyes*)

Actually, even more than the String Theory midterm, the thing that gives me the most pause about all this is that I would be away on October 21st, the day Richard Dawkins is speaking at McGill. I haven’t even read anything by this man (for shame, I know) but I feel like he’s already my hero.

What to do, what to do…

What I learned in school today

Newton's third law can be violated.

As it turns out, since magnetic force is related to the cross product of a charged particle’s velocity and the magnetic field vector, Newton’s third law, that ever action has an equal and opposite reaction, is not true in general. This can be seen in the situation shown where two positively charge particles move towards each other with an angle between them of 90 degrees, such as along the x and y axis towards the origin.

“A moth is not a butterfly”

A moth is not a butterfly
And I know why, I know why
It kind of makes you want to cry
That a moth is not a butterfly

CBC Radio’s Shift has a nice little habit of playing music that fits with the discussion of the moment. Hawskley Workman’s tune “A Moth is not a Butterfly” was up today. The moth today is Pluto, and the butterflies are the other eight planets. Correction — the only eight planets.

The International Astronomical Union has finally set down in writing what the definition of “planet” is and Pluto doesn’t make the cut. The general public opinion on the matter seems to be, “Aww”. Everybody loves the underdog.

The problem was that there are other objects in the solar system which are bigger than Pluto, and there’s plenty of reason to believe that there will be dozens more in years to come. Astronomers had a decision to make — either make all these new objects planets, or else bite the bullet and demote Pluto.

The little guy still gets to be called a dwarf planet, along with the (former) asteroid Ceres and its neighbour in our solar system’s Great White North, UB313 (aka Xena). There are dozen or so more candidate dwarfs on the list — Sedna and Quaoar among them.

So although everybody seems to love Pluto and wanted to see him stay among the planets, he’s got a lot of company out there near the Kuiper Belt. (That’s why he can’t be a planet anymore — planets are, by definition, loners, unlike the asteroids and the snowballs beyond Neptune.) You can all still cheer for him as the poster-boy for those ancient icy trans-Neptunian objects.

As an off topic side note, the lyrics of “A Moth is Not a Butterfly” seem awfully hard to come by on the web, so here they are, transcribed by me, in their entirety. Apologies for any mistakes.

A moth is not a butterfly
And I know why, I know why
It kind of makes you want to cry
That a moth is not a butterfly
But some are happy in the bluest sky
And others search in the dark of night
And sadness is a silent right
A moth is not a butterfly

A stone is not a grain of sand
It’s hard I guess to understand
Both broken parts scatter the land
A stone is not a grain of sand
And one has lived for longer still
The other longs to break until
The wind can lift it in its hand
A stone is not a grain of sand

A desert’s not a mountain side
And I know why, I know why
Cause one is vast and one divides
A desert’s not a mountain side
Cause one has need for open space
The other’s simply in its place
It must be known far and wide
That a desert’s not a mountainside

A moth is not a butterfly
And I know why, I know why
It kind of makes you want to cry
That a moth is not a butterfly